EPIS Basics

The terms safety and security are often falsely used interchangeably. Security denotes instances where humans are intentionally harmed.In contrast, safety descrirbes events where humans suffer unitntentional harm. For example a natural disaster or an accidental car crash are security concerns. Despite this differentiation, safety and security are often interconnected. Natural disasters may weaken state authority and enable looting and riots.

The concept of peak oil was first introduced by Marion King Hubbert in 1956. Peak oil describes a point where, due to the finite reserves of oil, oil production capabilities peak and subsequently decline. Estimates on when peak oil will be reached have hithertho proven incorrect, as new extraction techniques and the discovery of additional reserves have led to an increase in extraction capabilities.

Neoliberalism is a strand of liberalism that concentrates on economic interdependencies and international institutions. Neoliberalism believes international institutions can contribute to cooperation and peace by  verifying and sharing information between parties, subsequently lowering transaction costs. Moreover, international organizations can act as an honest broker between factions.

Nelson Mandela was a South African anti-apartheid activist and political leader. He joined the African National Congress in 1944 and initially promoted peaceful resistance to apartheid. After the ANC was banned in 1960, he endorsed armed struggle and was imprisoned in 1964. Following 27 years in prison, Mandela was released in 1990 and worked with President F.W. de Klerk to dismantle apartheid. He served as South Africa’s first black president from 1994 to 1999.

With technology becoming more interwined with people, societies, and our environment, natech disasters have garnered increasing attention. A natech disaster occurs when a natural disaster causes not only direct harm, but indirect harm through technological secondary effects. The 2011 earthquake and tsunami in Japan caused direct harm, causing infrastructure damage and floodings. However, the earthquake and tsunami also produced technological secondary effects, causing a partial nuclear meltdown at the Fukushima nuclear power plant.

Mao Zedong was the founding leader of the People’s Republic of China and head of the Chinese Communist Party. He led communist forces in World War II and the Chinese Civil War, claiming victory in 1949. While celebrated as a revolutionary, his rule also brought great tragedy. His economic campaigns, notably the Great Leap Forward, caused a famine that killed an estimated 45 million people. The Cultural Revolution led to further persecution, with over a million additional victims.

Liberalist theorists argue that peace is achieved through cooperation, institutions, peaceful interaction among states. It contends that international cooperation can lead to the promotion of common interests. Liberalism emphasises the importance of international institutions in providing forum for diplomacy to prevent conflict among states. Unlike realism, liberalism sees that states pursue not only their own interests but also seek shared values such as democracy, human rights, and economic prosperity.

Josip Broz Tito was the leader of Yugoslavia who unified the country after World War II by leading partisan resistance and establishing a socialist federation in 1945. Independent from Soviet control, he positioned Yugoslavia as a member of the Non-Aligned Movement. Domestically, he suppressed nationalism through decentralization and authoritarian rule, maintaining unity among the republics. Following his death in 1980, rising nationalist tensions led to Yugoslavia’s violent breakup by 1992.

Jawaharlal Nehru was India’s first Prime Minister, serving from 1947 to 1964 after leading the peaceful struggle for independence alongside Mahatma Gandhi. Domestically, he promoted democracy and secularism. Internationally, he was a key architect of the Non-Aligned Movement, advocating for newly independent nations to remain neutral during the Cold War, avoiding alignment with either the U.S. or the Soviet Union.

Hugo Grotius was a Dutch lawyer and scholar regarded as a founding father of international law. A child prodigy, he entered university at age 11 and later authored influential works in law and philosophy. His 1625 book On the Law of War and Peace, written during the Thirty Years’ War, laid out principles for just war and conduct in warfare—forming the basis of modern international legal frameworks.

The terms "energy security" and "energy independence" are imperative to understanding internaitonal energy politics. Energy security is the ability to ensure the uninterrupted availability of energy at an affordable price. Energy independence goes beyond energy security by emphasizing that an uninterupted availability of energy must be achieved while maintaining sovereignty and independence in one's foreign policy. For example, Germany prior to the Ukraine War achieved energy security, as Russian gas was readily available. However, Germany did not achieve energy independence, as its dependence on Russian gas forced it to adopt a more conciliatory policy towards Russia.

Alfred Nobel was a Swedish engineer and inventor best known for creating dynamite. In the 19th century, he developed a stable form of the powerful but volatile nitroglycerin, making explosives safer and more practical. Despite his industrial success, Nobel had no heirs and chose to dedicate his wealth to establishing the Nobel Prize—an award honoring contributions “for the greatest benefit to humankind.”

Feminist international relations theory posits that gender inequalities transcend borders. Consequently, adopting a feminist lens on international relations is merited. In doing so, gender norms are identified and challenged. For example, the focus on states in international relations is the product of a male-dominated state apparatus. Hence, feminist international relations theorists go beyond states, including various non-state actors, in their analysis of international relations.

Founded in 1998, Europol is an EU organ responsible for facilitating police cooperation between EU member states. Therefore, Europol creates databases and issues reports on crime. However, Europol cannot start investigations or arrests. Instead, it can only take part in Joint Investigation Teams.

Absolutism asserted that by divine right, all power should be centred in the hands of the reigning monarch. To enable absolutism, monarchs relied on a professional standing army and a large bureaucratic apparatus to execute their will. Often, absolutist monarchs showcased their power in lavish palaces like Louis XIV's Versailles.

The African Union (AU) is a continental organisation consisting of 54 African nations. Its goal is to enhance political, economic, and social cooperation across the continent. The AU seeks to prevent and manage conflict through organs like its Peace and Security Council. The AU has also compromised that it is possible to militarily intervene in a member state under the name of peacekeeping. The AU's efforts include addressing conflicts, advancing human rights, and coordinating responses to continental challenges such as health crises and climate change.

Amnesty International is an international non-governmental organization focused on human rights. It advocates for the protection of human rights, including civil liberties, political freedoms, and social justice. The organisation operates independently and strives to mobilise public support to pressure governments and other entities to uphold human rights standards.

Sadat became Egyptian president in 1970 following Nasser's death. Despite launching the Yom Kippur War to alleviate the trauma of Egypt's defeat during the Six-Day War, Sadat sought closer ties to the US. Hence, Sadat was open to US-mediated peace efforts when the tide turned against Egypt during the Yom Kippur War. These mediations ultimately lead to Egypt regaining the Sinai Peninsula and recognising Israel in the 1978 Camp-David Accords. Sadat was assassinated in 1981 by opponents of the Camp David Accords.

The Arctic Council was first convened in 1996 and features eight permanent member states: the US, Denmark, Norway, Iceland, Canada, Russia, Finland, and Sweden. The Arctic Council is devoted to protecting indigenous peoples, combatting climate change and pollution, and coordinating economic activities in the Arctic region. As part of its ambition to establish an "Arctic Silk Road", China joined the council as an observer in 2013.

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is a regional intergovernmental organisation of 10 member states, promoting regional peace and stability and accelerating economic growth. It promotes the “ASEAN Way” which refers to an approach to solving issues that respect the region’s cultural norms. Its key principles include non-interference in domestic affairs and consensus-based decision-making.

A general in the Chilean army, Pinochet took power in a military coup in 1973. Under Pinochet, approximately 40,000 critics and suspected communists were imprisoned, tortured or killed. Besides political oppression, Pinochet introduced free-market reforms influenced by Milton Friedman. Facing international pressure and a lost referendum, Pinochet handed over power to his democratically elected successor in 1990. However, Pinochet maintained immunity from prosecution.

The Balance of Power Theory suggests that states seek to prevent any single state or coalition from dominating the international system. This behavior is derived from the threat of each states’ survival. If one state gains significant power, it will take advantage of its less powerful neighbors. The theory contends that states will naturally form alliances or counter-alliances to prevent the emergence of a hegemon and to maintain relative equilibrium of power.

The Balance of Threat Theory asserts that states form alliances based on the threat they perceive from other states. It contends that states evaluate potential threats not only regarding power but also consider the level of aggression, the capabilities, and the intentions of other states. This theory highlights the importance of assessing threats and suggests that states align against those perceived as the greatest threats rather than just the most powerful entities.

Balancing and bandwagoning are two strategies that states employ in response shifts in the balance of power. Balancing refers to the tendency of weaker states to form alliances to counterbalance against a stronger power in order to maintain a stable power equilibrium. On the other hand, bandwagoning involves weaker states aligning with a dominant power, often in the hope of benefiting from its protection. Balancing is derived from the desire to avoid loss, whereas bandwagoning states seek for an opportunity to gain benefits.

Launched in 2013, the Belt and Road Initiative is central to Xi Jinping's foreign policy. Under the Belt and Road Initiative, China provides loans to countries to develop infrastructure. These infrastructure projects combine into a network of five land corridors and a maritime Silk Road. China portrays the Belt and Road initiative as a win-win situation, furthering trade and helping hitherto underdeveloped countries. However, critics warn that countries may not be able to pay back loans, becoming dependent on China.

After twelve days of secret negotiations at Camp David, Israel and Egypt signed the Camp David Accords on September 17th 1978. The accords consisted of two agreements. The first agreement saught to establish an autonomous authority in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. The second built the basis for Israel to cede the Sinai Peninsula against peace guarantees and diplomatic recognition by Egypt.

During the 30 Years War, Catholic France pursued alliances with the Protestant Dutch Republic and Sweden. Richelieu, himself a Catholic cardinal, arranged these alliances to balance against the Habsburg Empire. In doing so, Richelieu championed "raison d'etat", detaching the state from religious ideologies and providing it with its own interests. In strengthening the "raison d'etat", Richelieu increased the power and freedom of the ruler, facilitating absolutism.

Besides his famous trinities describing the nature of war, Clausewitz introduced the concept of the "centre of gravity." Initially referring to the point where the enemy's forces were concentrated, Clausewitz later revised the concept. In its later iteration, "centre of gravity" refers to the source of the enemy's power, that being its population and morale.

Charles de Gaulle, often known as the General, was a prominent French military leader and statesman. As a president of France, he pursued a policy of “national independence” asserting French sovereignty and opposing both American and Soviet dominance during the Cold War. This led him to withdraw France from NATO's integrated military command and to develop own nuclear capabilities that made France the world’s fourth nuclear power. De Gaulle's approach emphasised national pride and an assertive stance in international affairs, shaping France's role on the world stage.

The Prussian general and military strategist Carl von Clausewitz described war as a trinity of passion, chance, and reason. Passion resembles intrinsic hatred and is often associated with the population. Reason is likely attributed to the government. Clausewitz affiliated chance with the military.

After the Napoleonic Wars, European powers convened at the Congress of Vienna to reorder Europe. Lasting from 1814 to 1815, the Congress was renowned for its lavish banquets, balls, and intricate negotiations. The Congress sought to reestablish monarchies to increase the legitimacy between states and limit the scope of future conflicts. Moreover, a stable balance of power was deemed essential for securing peace. For this purpose, defeated France was included in negotiations.

Constructivism focuses on the role of ideas, norms, and identities in shaping global politics. It contends that international outcomes are influenced by not only material factors but also non-material factors such as socially constructed perceptions and conventions. Constructivism highlights the importance of shared beliefs, cultural practices, and historical contexts in shaping state behavior. It argues that their behaviors are not fixed but can adapt and change based on evolving social norms and identities.

Counterforce describes the ability to conduct nuclear strikes against militarily relevant targets such as army bases. Counterforce strikes depend on smaller, tactical nuclear weapons. Countervalue describes nuclear attacks against non-military targets such as cities. In doing so, larger strategic nuclear weapons are utilised.

The Democratic Peace Theory argues that democracies are reluctant to engage in armed conflict with other democracies. This theory proposes that shared democratic norms lead to higher level of peaceful relations among democratic countries. It is based on the notion that democracies are accountable to their citizens, and citizens generally prefer peace over conflicts. However, critics argue that other factors such as economic ties also play a role in influencing interstate relations since democracies are not completely immune to conflict.

Deng Xiaoping's transformative leadership reshaped China's global presence. As part of his Reform and Opening-up diplomacy, he sought foreign investment and partnerships, opening the nation to international trade and driving China's rapid economic growth. Deng also proposed the 'One Country, Two Systems' approach for the governance of Hong Kong. Deng's shift to economic pragmatism reshaped global perceptions of China, fostering its rise as a major international player.

A general in the First and Second World War, McArthur became supreme commander of the Allied Forces in Japan. In the latter function, McArthur oversaw postwar socio-political reforms in Japan and the creation of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East. McArthur later led the United Nations Command in the Korean War. After publicly criticising the Truman administration and advocating for an escalation of the war, McArthur was relieved of his command in 1951. His removal remains a contentious topic in civil-military relations.

The English School of International Relations aims to reconcile Realism and Idealism, emphasizing power and sovereignty alongside norms and institutions' impact on global outcomes. It highlights the evolution of an international society based on common values, rules, and shared interests, fostering cooperation while acknowledging the enduring significance of state power.

Environmental Security contends that environmental issues are vital to global stability and national security. This concept emphasises the interconnection between ecological issues and traditional security concerns. This perspective first and foremost highlights potential conflicts over environmental resources or the displacement of populations due to environmental factors. It asserts the need for international cooperation to address shared environmental threats, promoting both ecological sustainability and geopolitical stability.

The European Union (EU) is a political and economic union of 27 nations that are primarily located in Europe. Starting off as the European Coal and Steel community, it has evolved into a broader union with shared citizenship beginning with the signing in Maastricht Treaty in 1992. The EU’s key objectives include creating a single market with free movement of goods, services, people, and capital as well as fostering common foreign and security policies.

FIVE EYES is an intelligence alliance comprising the English-speaking countries: the US, the UK, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. These nations collaborate on signals intelligence gathering and sharing. The alliance aims to enhance security and intelligence capabilities through information exchange. FIVE EYES members commit to joint efforts in monitoring global communications and sharing valuable intelligence, emphasizing close cooperation and mutual trust in addressing international security challenges.

Franklin D. Roosevelt became the 32. US President amidst the Great Depression. To recover from the financial crisis, Roosevelt introduced the "New Deal". The "New Deal" consisted of "three R's": Relief for the poor and unemployed, Recovery from the financial crisis, and regulations on the financial markets to prevent future crises. Roosevelt remains the only US President to run for four terms, staying in office from 1933-1945.

As Prussian King, Frederick the Great waged wars against Habsburg, France, and Russia, establishing Prussia as a major European power. Besides military accomplishments, Frederick the Great is often regarded as a representative of enlightened absolutism. Although concentrating power, Frederick believed the ruler ought to rule for the benefit of the people. Following this narrative, Frederick abolished torture and introduced the potato to alleviate food insecurity.

"Everything in war is simple, but the simplest thing is difficult." This quote by Clausewitz encapsulates the meaning of "friction". The concept refers to minor problems in implementing a battle plan. These issues accumulate, constituting the difference between a plan and its implementation. Related to friction is the problem regarding uncertainty of knowledge. Although Clausewitz himself never mentioned the term, this uncertainty has been referred to as the "fog of war".

Nasser's presidency (1956-1970) established Egypt as a significant player in the Middle East and saw the rise of Nasserism. A variant of Arab Socialism tailored to Nasser, Nasserism advocated anti-colonialism, socialist policies, and the unity of Arab nations. Nasserism won popularity throughout the Arab world when Egypt nationalised the British-held Suez Canal in 1956. Nasserism further found manifestation when Egypt and Syria merged to found the United Arab Republic (1958-1961).

Game Theory is a framework for analysing strategic interactions between states where outcomes depend on the choices of all actors involved. States aim to maximize their own gains while considering the potential actions of other states. This approach helps understand how states might cooperate, compete, or engage in conflict, based on their assumptions of each other's actions. Game Theory provides insights to negotiation dynamics, arms races, and various other international scenarios.

Contrary to popular belief, geopolitics is not a synonym for foreign policy. Geopolitics comes in two strands. First, critical geopolitics scrutinises how rulers portray geographical space to mobilise support and achieve ends. Second, classical geopolitics investigates how geography and technology interact and influence international relations. The interaction between technology and geography distinguishes classical geopolitics from geodeterminism. The latter argues that state behaviour is predetermined by geography alone.

In 1946, writing from Moscow, Kennan sent the "long telegram" to Washington, D.C. The telegram interpreted the Soviet Union's foreign policy as expansionist and rooted in a traditional Russian sense of insecurity and the need to oppress its population. The long telegram influenced the belief that the Soviet Union's foreign policy was not driven by rational grievances. Consequently, no concessions, but only a strategy of containment could guide the US' foreign policy towards the Soviet Union.

A World War 2 general, Marshall became secretary of state in 1947 under President Harry Truman. Marshall is often brought in connection with the Marshall Plan. Although Marshall supported US economic aid to Europe, Marshall did not author the Marshall Plan. Instead, he lent his prestige and reputation as a former general to promoting the program. In 1950, Marshall became Secretary of Defense and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his role in the Marshall Plan.

The governmental politics model posits that separation of power does not lead to a division of power. Rather, multiple actors with different agendas have to share power. This means that contrary to the rational actor model, states are not unitary actors. Rather, the governmental politics model believes that the action of states is the result of the bargaining process between players with different agendas.

Hans Morgenthau was a prominent 20th-century political theorist. His work, particularly the book "Politics Among Nations," laid the foundation for realism in international relations theory. Morgenthau emphasized the importance of power, national interests, and state behavior in global politics. He contended that states pursued their interests in a competitive world, and his ideas continue to shape the understanding of international relations driven by self-interest and power dynamics.

Hedging, a relatively new concept, refers to a strategic approach where states simultaneously pursue multiple policies to manage uncertainty and to adapt to changing geopolitical dynamics. This involves both maintaining a flexible stance and hedging against potential risks. This strategy aims to have a balance between safeguarding security and maximising advantageous opportunities in an unpredictable international environment.

The Hegemonic Stability Theory suggests that the international system is more likely to be stable in unipolar system where there is single dominant power, or hegemon. As this hegemon provides public goods such as a stable currency and security guarantees, it reduces uncertainty among states and maintains the international order. This theory also indicates that shifts in hegemonic power can lead to instability and conflict as new powers seek for control and the established order will be disrupted.

Henry Kissinger, prominent diplomat and political thinker, played a key role in shaping US foreign policy. He employed realpolitik strategies, as known as pursuing pragmatic policies, to ease tensions during the Cold War. Kissinger's diplomacy re-established US-China relations and negotiated the end of the Vietnam War. However, he remains controversial figure in U.S. politics for his toleration and support on war crimes surrounding his policies.

Born in 484 BCE, Herodotus wrote the "Histories," an account of the Greco-Persian wars. Using reason (gnome), Herodotus sought to combine eyewitness accounts (akoe), hearsay (opsis), and tradition (prolegomena) of both belligerents. Thus, Herodotus' quest to identify the causes behind events departed from conventional explanations, attributing events to acts of God. This method of inquiry makes Herodotus the "Father of History."

Hybrid warfare is a contested concept. In its broadest form, it can be described as the use of different actors and different types of warfare. Specifically, actors may include regular military units, guerilla fighters, and terrorists. Combatants can also employ various tactics, ranging from physical military force to hacking and disinformation. Nevertheless, whether hybrid warfare occurs as part of a war, below the threshold of war, or is conducted in the grey zone between war and peace remains unclear.

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is an international organisation that seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy while preventing its misuse for military purposes. The IAEA monitors nuclear activities, inspects facilities, and helps to ensure the international safeguards and non-proliferation agreements. The agency also provides technical assistance to member states in nuclear technology applications, safety, and security.

1859, Swiss businessman Henry Dunant witnessed the aftermath of the Ballte of Solferino. Shocked by the widespread suffering, Dunant became a founding member of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) in 1863. The ICRC was the first organisation dedicated to helping wounded soldiers and providing help to all wounded belligerents. The Red Cross's unconditional help to all belligerents has been criticised, as it may necessitate cooperation with regimes that violate humanitarian law and human rights.

In The Hague, the Netherlands, the International Criminal Court prosecutes individuals based on the 2002 Rome Statute. The Rome Statute allows for the prosecution of individuals who committed genocide, crimes of aggression, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. In contrast to the International Court of Justice, the ICC is not a UN organ and does not prosecute states.

In The Hague, the Netherlands, the International Criminal Court prosecutes individuals based on the 2002 Rome Statute. The Rome Statute allows for the prosecution of individuals who committed genocide, crimes of aggression, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. In contrast to the International Court of Justice, the ICC is not a UN organ and does not prosecute states.

International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international financial institution founded in 1944 at the Bretton Woods Conference along with the World Bank. Whereas the World Bank focuses on poverty reduction and development aid, the IMF focuses on monetary stability. As such, the IMF is often the lender of last resort for countries in a debt crisis.

The International Criminal Police Organisation, known as Interpol, is an international organization that facilitates police cooperation and crime control. It provides investigative support and expertise focusing on three main areas of transnational crime: terrorism, cybercrime, and organized crime. Interpol promotes cooperation among national law enforcement agencies by coordinating criminal databases and communication networks.

John F. Kennedy, the 35th President of the United States, had a notable impact on international relations during the Cold War era. His leadership was marked by the Cuban Missile Crisis, where he defused a potential nuclear conflict between the US and the Soviet Union. He also championed the idea of a world based on collective security through international alliances, such as NATO, to counter the spread of communism and maintain stability in the face of ideological tensions.

Joseph Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union from the 1920s until his death in 1953, had a significant impact on the international order during and after World War II. He allied with the United Kingdom and the United states to eventually defeat Nazi Germany in 1945. Stalin's post-war actions contributed to the division between Eastern and Western blocs, marking the beginning of the Cold War. His visions set the stage for the ideological and geopolitical tensions that defined international relations for decades.

Klemens von Metternich was an Austrian foreign minister and chancellor. After the Napoleonic Wars, Metternich oversaw the Congress of Vienna. and created the Concert of Europe. The Concert of Vienna intended to preserve peace in Europe through a stable balance of power and restoring monarchies. The latter was intended to increase the legitimacy states granted each other. Thereby, greater legitimacy was meant to decrease the scale of conflicts. By restoring monarchies, a key tenant of Metternich's ideology emerges: order is a prerequisite to freedom and must take precedence.

The covenant of the League of Nations was part of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles. Headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, the organisation was the first to be dedicated to preventing wars and solving disputes peacefully. However, the US Congress refused to ratify the US entry into the League of Nations, weakening the institution. The League of Nations was ultimately disbanded and replaced by the United Nations in 1946.

Lee Kuan Yew is often referred to as the founding father of Singapore. After Singapore's expulsion from Malaysia in 1965, Lee became Singapore's first prime minister. Providing social housing and social programs, Lee fostered cohesion between Singapore's Chinese and Malay ethnicities. Levying a combination of state subsidies and efforts to increase free enterprise, Lee sought to establish Singapore as a finance and business hub.

Reigning from 1643 to 1715 as French King, Louis XIV is the longest-reigning monarch in history. During his reign, Louis XIV epitomised the Age of Absolutism. Enlargening his Versailles castle, Louis hosted French nobility and concentrated state power in his hands. His unrestricted rule also made him known as "The Sun King". In his efforts to consolidate power, Louis XIV built on Richelieu's previous efforts to establish the "raison d'état". The concept of "raison d'état" helped Louis XIV reign unrestrained by religious or other non-state interests.

Mahatma Gandhi was an Indian lawyer and anti-colonial activist. He is best known for "satyagraha," his nonviolent opposition to British colonialism. In addition to peaceful non-cooperation, "satyagraha" emphasised non-possession and religious tolerance. The latter meant that despite supporting independence from British rule, Gandhi opposed the partitioning of British India into a Muslim-majority Pakistan and a Hindu-majority India. While attending a multi-faith prayer meeting in 1948, Gandhi was killed by a Hindu nationalist.

Margaret Thatcher, a former UK Prime Minister, reshaped international relations through assertive diplomacy and conservative ideology. Her resolute stance of distrust of communism reinforced the UK's relationship with the US. Thatcher also championed free-market principles and deregulation of the economy which influenced global economic policies. Her firm leadership left an enduring mark on geopolitics and neoliberal thought.

As Soviet leader (1985-1991), Mikhail Gorbachev redefined global politics. His policies of openness (glasnost) and restructuring (perestroika) led to the end of the Cold War and to the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Gorbachev's leadership introduced new political and economic freedoms in the Soviet Union. His role in the German reunification process and arms reduction treaties fostered a more cooperative global environment, shaping the post-Cold War world.

In 1823, during a speech to the US Congress, President Monroe articulated his vision of the world being divided into the Old World and the New World. The Americas constituted the new world, within which the US would not tolerate any expansion of European colonial activities. In return, the US would not intervene in European affairs. Since its declaration, the Monroe Doctrine was reinterpreted to allow for greater US interventionism in the Americas. believed the

Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) is a nuclear doctrine first coined by Herman Kahn of the US Hudson Institute. It asserts that a nuclear attack would result in the annihilation of both parties. MAD assumes the attacked party would retain enough nuclear weapons to launch a second strike. During the second strike, the attacker would also be annihilated.

Napoleon became First Consul of France in 1796 and Emperor of France in 1804. Napoleon's subdual of most of Continental Europe saw the rise of nationalism and the spread of the ideals of the French Revolution. Napoleon's Grand Armée was severely weakened by his failed invasion of Russia in 1812 and suffered defeat at the Battle of Leipzig. Thereafter, Napoleon resigned in 1813 but returned in 1814. After Napoleon's final defeat in 1814 during the Battle of Waterloo, Napoleon was exiled to St. Helena.

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is a military alliance consisting of European and North American nations and it strives to ensure security and collective defence. 31 member states have committed to mutual defence in response to an armed attack by external parties. NATO’s primary objective is to promote stability and deter aggression by coordinating military efforts and sharing information among member states.

Neoliberalism is a strand of liberalism that concentrates on economic aspects. While both liberalism and neoliberalism emphasise cooperation among state and the role of international institutions, neoliberalism specifically prioritises the benefits of economic globalisation and market-oriented policies. It places a huge emphasis on mechanisms such as deregulation, privatisation, and free markets to promote economic growth and reduce conflicts among states.

Neorealism, also known as structural realism, argues that the structure of the international system impacts state behavior. Neorealism contends that the anarchic nature of the international system, where there is no central authority, drives states to prioritise their own security and survival. Unlike classical realism, neorealism puts more emphasis more on systemic factors and downplays the role of individual leaders and state-specific attributes in shaping international relations.

Turkey, The Netherlands, Belgium, Italy, and Germany participate in NATO's nuclear sharing. The participating countries have US nuclear weapons stationed on their territory. In case of war, planes from the respective allied air forces will deliver the US bombs to their targets. Critics claim NATO's nuclear sharing program may violate the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.

The nuclear triad describes the capability of a military to deliver nuclear warheads via bombers, in missile silos on land and submarines. Nuclear missiles based on land are often classified as Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs). Submarines may carry Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBMs) armed with nuclear warheads. The nuclear triad ensures an enemy cannot eliminate all nuclear weapons in a first strike, thus securing the retaliatory capability of the attacked state.

The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) is an intergovernmental organisation with 38 member states that pursues a stimulation of economic progress and world trade. Its member countries describe themselves as committed to democracy and the market economy. The OECD provides a platform to its members to compare policy experiences, identify good practices, and coordinate domestic and international policies.

The offence-defence balance is the ratio between the resources belligerents need to conduct offensive or defensive operations. For example, a ratio of 1:4 would indicate that a defender needs one soldier to defend against four attackers. Realists have often sought to use the offence-defence balance to explain how material power can be transformed into actual military influence and control.

The Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), located in The Hague, the Netherlands, was created to oversee the 1997 Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC). The CWC prohibits the use of and orders the destruction of chemical weapons. In 2013, the OPCW was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.

The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is an international organization founded by oil-producing nations. Its primary objective is to coordinate and regulate the production and pricing of petroleum to collectively influence the global oil market and maximize profit. Given the importance of oil to the global economy, OPEC's decisions can significantly influence the world economy and international relations.

According to the organisational behaviour model, states' behaviour is not utility-maximizing. Instead, state action resembles the organisational output of government agencies. Organisations operate according to standard operating procedures, which can increase efficiency. However, standardisation also means procedures cannot be tailored to specific circumstances and could be outdated. Subsequently, government agencies might act in ways contradicting the paradigm of utility maximisation.

In 2015, 196 states adopted the Paris Climate Accords. Signatory states pledge to keep temperatures below 2, preferably 1.5 degrees Celsius, compared to pre-industrial times. To achieve these goals, states communicate increasingly ambitious five-year "Nationally Determined Contributions" to limit greenhouse gas emissions. Moreover, the accords encourage financial support and capacity building to reduce emissions and build resilience against the adverse effects of climate change.

The Peace of Westphalia, signed in the German cities of Münster and Osnabrück, ended the 30-Year War. Some scholars have argued that the treaty established the principles of legal equality and states having exclusive sovereignty over their territories. However, critics have doubted whether these principles were ever widely accepted and whether they originated from the Peace of Westphalia.

As the leader of the Khmer Rouge, Pol rose to power in 1975 in the aftermath of the Cambodian civil war. The Khmer Rouge were a radical communist movement in Cambodia. Trying to establish a self-sufficient agrarian utopia, Pol Pot's Khmer Rouge forced millions into forced labour. The resulting famines and executions due to paranoia led to the Cambodian Genocide that killed one-fourth of Cambodia's population. Pol Pot was toppled in 1979 by Vietnamese troops and died in prison in 1998.

The term political warfare has been used differently throughout history. In the West, US Diplomat George Kennan significantly influenced the understanding of political warfare. In his 1948 memorandum "Organizing Political Warfare," Kennan described political warfare as the hostile employment of all means at a nation's disposal short of war.

The Powell Doctrine owes its name to the former US Joint Chiefs of Staff chairman, Collin Powell. Drawing upon the 1990-91 Gulf War, Powell created a list of eight questions on whether the US should go to war. These questions included whether all peaceful alternatives had been exhausted and whether the US had a clear exit strategy out of the conflict. Moreover, the Powell Doctrine raises the question of whether the US enjoyed international and domestic support for a military intervention. Only when all questions were to be answered affirmatively should the US go to war.

The Power Transition Theory suggests that the international system is stable when power is concentrated with one dominant power that maintains the status quo. This theory particularly emphasises the potential for war during a transitional phase, as the established power is reluctant to give up its dominant position while rising powers aim to assert themselves.

The Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) was first created in 2008 but dispanded following Australia's exit in 2009. In 2017, the Quad was re-established. Observers have seen the Quad as a testimony to greater competition between China and the US. Indeed, China has referred to the Quad as an "Asian Nato". However, the Quad lacks the formal alliance structure and mutual defence obligations of NATO. Instead, the Quad cooperates in different working groups on innovation and economic issues and conducts joint military exercises.

The rational actor model assumes states assess policy options based on their predicted payoff. The policy with the highest payoff concerning an overarching goal is chosen. Specifically, comprehensive rationality assumes states are fully informed of payoffs. In contrast, bounded rationality believes states may not be fully informed of payoffs and may be influenced by historical and cultural preferences.

Realism is one of the dominant theories in international relations. The roots of neorealist international relations theory can be traced back over 2,400 years to Thucydide’s account of the Peloponnesian War. Over the years realism has evolved into three main subbranches: classical realism, neorealism, and neoclassical realism. What all branches have in common is the importance of power and the importance of states as the main actors in international relations.

Regionalism in international relations refers to the process of states forming alliances, institutions, or cooperative initiatives within a specific geographic area. This approach can serve various purposes, such as promoting trade, enhancing security, and addressing shared challenges. This theory posits that regional dynamics can influence global politics by creating alternative centres of influence and thus affecting the overall structure of international relations.

Richard Nixon was the 37th President of the United States. His policy of détente sought to ease Cold War tensions through diplomatic engagement with the Soviet Union and China, leading to historic visits to both nations. He advanced nuclear arms control through The Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) agreements with the USSR aiming at reducing the risk of nuclear arsenals. Nixon's emphasis on realpolitik aimed to advance American interests pragmatically, shaping the landscape of global diplomacy and fostering a new era of international relations.

Under Kennedy and Johnson, McNamara was US Secretary of Defense. During the Cuban Missile Crisis, McNamara was part of the US Executive Committee, which governed US decision-making. Supporting the Domino Theory, McNamara later oversaw the US engagement in the Vietnam War. Despite being labelled the architect of the Vietnam War, McNamara later expressed regret for the war.

Robert Schuman, a French statesman, played a crucial role in the formation of the EU. After WWII, he proposed the idea that close economic ties between nations could deter conflict, an idea central to liberalism. This concept is called the Schuman Plan, which led to the formation of the European Coal and Steel Community. This marked the first step towards closer cooperation among European states, aiming to prevent further wars in the future. His commitment has left a lasting impact on the process of European integration.

Ayatollah Khomeini's rise in Iran marked a turning point in Middle Eastern relations. As the leader of the Islamic Revolution in 1979, he established an Islamic republic and challenged Western influence in the region. Khomeini's anti-Western stance affected global oil markets and inspired similar movements. His confrontational approach and pursuit of nuclear capabilities intensified tensions and diplomacy challenges, impacting Iran's global standing and regional dynamics.

According to the Security Dilemma, if one state increases its security capabilities, this simulataneously reduces the security of another. Consequently, security-increasing measures lead to a cycle of increased tensions, escalations, or conflicts. This occurs because it is hard to know about other states' intentions: Do they simple gear up their defence capabilities or are they actively preparing for war? Hence, efforts to enhance security can lead to greater instability due to the misperception of intentions and the lack of trust in the international system.

The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) is a regional intergovernmental alliance consisting of China, Russia, and several Central Asian nations. It is the world's largest regional organization in terms of geographic scope and population. It promotes economic, political, and security cooperation among its members, focusing on issues like counterterrorism and regional stability. The SCO serves as a platform for dialogue and collaboration, addressing regional development and connectivity.

The United Nations is an intergovernmental organisation founded in 1945 to promote international cooperation and peace. Its main objectives include maintaining global security, fostering economic developments, advancing human rights, and addressing humanitarian crises. The UN has several principal operational bodies which are involved in various activities ranging from the military domain such as peacekeeping operations to sustainable development initiatives.